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Georgia is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. It was the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, in 1733. It was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788. It seceded from the Union on January 21, 1861 and was one of the original seven Confederate states. It was the last state to be readmitted to the Union, on July 15, 1870. Georgia is the ninth-largest state in the nation by population, with an estimated 9,544,750 residents as of July 1, 2007. It is also the fourth fastest growing state in terms of numeric gain and ninth in terms of percent gain, adding 162,447 residents at a rate of 1.7 percent.From 2006 to 2007, Georgia had 18 counties among the nation's 100 fastest-growing counties, the most of any state. Georgia is also known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South. Atlanta is the capital, and the most populous city.
martes, 24 de marzo de 2009
FLAG BRISTISH COLONIES OF GEORGIA
Georgia is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. It was the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, in 1733. It was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788. It seceded from the Union on January 21, 1861 and was one of the original seven Confederate states. It was the last state to be readmitted to the Union, on July 15, 1870. Georgia is the ninth-largest state in the nation by population, with an estimated 9,544,750 residents as of July 1, 2007. It is also the fourth fastest growing state in terms of numeric gain and ninth in terms of percent gain, adding 162,447 residents at a rate of 1.7 percent.From 2006 to 2007, Georgia had 18 counties among the nation's 100 fastest-growing counties, the most of any state. Georgia is also known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South. Atlanta is the capital, and the most populous city.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF BARBADOS
Barbados (pronounced /bɑr-beɪ'-doʊz, -dɒs/), situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is an independent Continental Island-nation in the western Atlantic Ocean. Located at roughly 13° North of the equator and 59° West of the prime meridian, it is considered a part of the Lesser Antilles. Its closest island neighbours are Saint Vincent & the Grenadines and Saint Lucia to the west. To the south lies Trinidad and Tobago—with which Barbados now shares a fixed official maritime boundary—and also the South American mainland. Barbados's total land area is about 430 square kilometres (166 square miles), and is primarily low-lying, with some higher in the country's interior. The highest point in Barbados is Mount Hillaby in the parish of Saint Andrew. The geological composition of Barbados is of non-volcanic origin and is predominantly composed of limestone-coral formed by subduction of the South American plate colliding with the Caribbean plate. The island's climate is tropical, with constant trade winds off the Atlantic Ocean serving to keep temperatures mild. Some less developed areas of the country contain tropical woodland and mangroves. Other parts of the interior which contribute to the agriculture industry are dotted with large sugarcane estates and wide, gently sloping pastures, with panoramic views down to the coast also.
Barbados's human development index ranking is consistently among the top 75 countries in the world. For example, in 2006, it was ranked 31st in the world, and third in the Americas, behind Canada and the United States.
FLAG BRISTISH COLONIES OF BENGKULU
Bengkulu is a province of Indonesia. It is on the southwest coast of the island of Sumatra, and borders the provinces of West Sumatra, Jambi, South Sumatra and Lampung. The capital and largest city of the province is Bengkulu city. It was formerly the site of a British garrison, which they called Bencoolen.
FLAG BRISTISH COLONIES OF BURMA
Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia, or Indochina. The country is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest with the Gulf of Martaban and Andaman Sea defining its southern periphery. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometres (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF CYPRUS
Cyprus (Greek: Κύπρος, transliterated: Kýpros, IPA: [ˈcipɾo̞s]; Turkish: Kıbrıs), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, [cipɾiaˈci ðimo̞kɾaˈtia]; Turkish: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti), is an island country situated in the eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, west of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, south of Turkey and north of Egypt.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS
The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 1916 until 1 January 1976 when the islands were divided into two different colonies which became independent nations shortly after. The Gilbert Islands have been the major part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF GRENADA
Grenada (pronounced /gr
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF GUAYANA
Guyana (pronounced /ɡaɪˈænə/ or /ɡiːˈɑːnə/), officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and previously known as British Guiana, is the only state of the Commonwealth of Nations on mainland South America. On the northern coast of the continent, it is bordered to the east by Suriname, to the south and southwest by Brazil, to the west by Venezuela, and on the north by the Atlantic Ocean. At 215,000 km2, it is the third smallest state on the mainland of South America (after Suriname and French Guiana). Its population is approximately 860,000. It is one of the five non-Spanish-speaking territories on the continent, along with the states of Brazil (Portuguese) and Suriname (Dutch), the French overseas region of French Guiana (French) and the British Overseas Territory of the Falkland Islands (English). Guyana is culturally most often associated with the English-speaking Caribbean states, commonly referred to as the Anglophone Caribbean.
martes, 17 de marzo de 2009
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF HONG KONG
Hong Kong (Chinese: 香港), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located in Southern China in East Asia, bordering the province of Guangdong to the north and facing the South China Sea to the east, west and south. It has a population of 7 million people but only 1,108km2 of land, making it one of the most densely populated areas in the world.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF INDIA
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi). It is bordered by Pakistan to the west; People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF JAMAICA
Jamaica (pronounced /dʒəˈmeɪkə/) is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, 234 kilometres (145 mi) in length and as much as 80 kilometres (50 mi) in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. It is about 145 kilometres (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 190 kilometres (120 mi) west of the island of Hispaniola, on which Haiti and the Dominican Republic are situated. Its indigenous Arawakan-speaking Taíno inhabitants named the island Xaymaca, meaning the "Land of Wood and Water", or the "Land of Springs". Formerly a Spanish possession known as Santiago, it later became the British Crown colony of Jamaica. It is the third most populous anglophone country in North America, after the United States and Canada. It remains a Commonwealth realm.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF JUBALAND
Jubaland (Somali: Jubbaland) or Juba Valley (Somali: Dooxada Jubba), formerly Trans-Juba (Italian: Oltre Giuba), is the southwesternmost part of Somalia, on the far side of the Juba River (thus "Trans"-Juba), bordering on Kenya.
Total population of Jubaland is estimated at 1.3 million inhabitants. Its constituent administrative regions of Gedo, Lower Juba, and Middle Juba had estimated populations of 690,000, 400,000 and 240,000, respectively, in 2005.[1] The region has a total area of 87,000 km² (33,000 sq mi). The main city is Kismayo, on the coast near the mouth of the Juba.
The region has been the site of numerous battles in the ongoing[update] Somali Civil War and was briefly declared independent in 1998–1999. As of early 2008[update], the region is under nominal control of the Somali Transitional Federal Government.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF COLONY OF KENYA
The Colony of Kenya was established when the former East Africa Protectorate was transformed into a British crown colony in 1920.
The colony came to an end in 1963 when a black majority government was elected for the first time and eventually declared independence as Kenya.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF MALASYA
Malaysia (pronounced /məˈlεɪʒə/ or /məˈleɪziə/) is a federation that consists of thirteen states and three federal territories in Southeast Asia with a total landmass of 329,847 square kilometres (127,355 sq mi).The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 27 million. The country is separated into two regions—Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo—by the South China Sea.Malaysia borders Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei and the Philippines. The country is located near the equator and experiences a tropical climate. Malaysia's head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the government is headed by a Prime Minister. The government is closely modeled after the Westminster parliamentary system.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF NIGERIA
Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean, in the south. The capital city is Abuja. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF ORANGE RIVER SOVEREIGNTY
The Orange River Sovereignty (1848–1854) was a short-lived political entity between the Orange and Vaal rivers in southern Africa. In 1854, it became the Orange Free State, and is now the Free State province of South Africa.
martes, 10 de marzo de 2009
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF PAKISTAN
Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستان Pākistān 
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF PENNSYLVANIA
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (
/ˌpɛnsɨlˈveɪnjə/ (help·info)), often colloquially referred to as PA (its postal abbreviation which succeeds the archaic Penn. and Penna. as common abbreviations) by natives and Northeasterners, is a state located in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and a water border with Canada to the north, and New Jersey to the east. The state's most populated city is Philadelphia.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF PADUA
The Territory of Papua was a de facto Australian possession comprising the southeastern quarter of the island of New Guinea, existing from roughly 1902 to 1949. It had previously been administered from London as British New Guinea and remained a de jure British possession[citation needed] until 1975 when Papua New Guinea was granted independence by Australia. The territory now forms the southern part of Papua New Guinea, and makes up roughly half of that country.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF RHODE ISLAND
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, more commonly referred to as Rhode Island (
Despite being called Rhode Island in common usage most of the state is on the continental mainland. The name Rhode Island derives from the colonial-era name for what is now known as Aquidneck Island, which now comprises the city of Newport and the towns of Middletown and Portsmouth, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF SINGAPORE
Singapore officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island microstate located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. It lies 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator, south of the Malaysian state of Johor and north of Indonesia's Riau Islands. At 710.2 km2 (274.2 sq mi), Singapore is one of three remaining true Sovereign city-states in the world (along with Monaco and Vatican City). It is the smallest nation in Southeast Asia.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF SUDAN
Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) (Arabic: السودان al-Sūdān)[2] is a country in northeastern Africa. It is the largest in the African continent and the Arab World,[3] and tenth largest in the world by area. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest.
The people of Sudan have a long history extending from antiquity, which is intertwined with the history of Egypt, with which it was united politically over several periods. Sudan's history has also been plagued by civil war stemming from ethnic, religious, and economic conflict between the mostly Muslim and Arab population to the north, and non-Arab Black Africans to the south. Sudan is currently ranked as the second-most unstable country in the world according to the Failed States Index, due to its military dictatorship and the ongoing humanitarian crisis in Darfur. However, despite its internal conflicts, Sudan has managed to achieve economic growth.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF THIRTEEN COLONIES
The Thirteen Colonies were part of what became known as British America, a name that was used by Great Britain until the Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the original thirteen United States of America in 1783. These British colonies in North America rebelled against British rule in 1775, this was due to the taxation that Great Britain was imposing on the colonies. A provisional government was formed which proclaimed their independence, which is now celebrated as having occurred on July 4, 1776, and subsequently became the original thirteen United States of America. The colonies were founded between 1607 (Virginia), and 1733 (Georgia), although Great Britain held several other colonies in North America and the West Indies.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Tobago is the smaller of the two main islands that make up the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It is located in the southern Caribbean Sea, northeast of the island of Trinidad and southeast of Grenada. The island lies outside the hurricane belt.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF TASMANIA
Tasmania is an Australian island and state of the same name. It is located 240 kilometres (150 mi) south of the eastern side of the continent, being separated from it by Bass Strait. The state of Tasmania includes the island of Tasmania and other surrounding islands. The state has an estimated population of 500,000 (as of December 2008[update]) with almost half located in the greater Hobart area, and an area of 68,401 square kilometres (26,410 sq mi), of which the main island covers 62,409 square kilometres (24,096 sq mi).
Tasmania is promoted as the Natural State and the "Island of Inspiration" owing to its large and relatively unspoiled natural environment. Formally, almost 37% of Tasmania is in reserves, National Parks and World Heritage Sites.The island is 364 kilometres (226 mi) long from the northernmost point to the southernmost point and 306 kilometres (190 mi) from west to east.
martes, 3 de marzo de 2009
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF VICTORIA
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Victoria is a state located in the southeastern corner of Australia. It is the smallest mainland state in area but the most densely populated and urbanised. Prior to European settlement, some 30,000 Indigenous Australians lived in the area now occupied by the state. By contrast, over five million people now inhabit the region. European settlement in Victoria began in the 1830s as a farming community. The discovery of gold in 1851 transformed it into a leading industrial and commercial centre. Victoria is the second most populous Australian state, after New South Wales, with an estimated population of 5,205,200 as of June 2007[4]. Melbourne is Victoria's capital and largest city, with more than 70% of all Victorians living there.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF VIRGINIA
The Commonwealth of Virginia is an American state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. The state is known as the "Old Dominion" and sometimes as "Mother of Presidents", because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The state is geographically shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, home to much of the state's flora and fauna. The capital of the commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The state population is over seven million.
The roots of modern Virginia trace back to the founding of the Virginia Colony in 1607 by the Virginia Company of London as the first permanent New World English colony. Slavery played a significant role in Virginia's early economy and politics. Virginia became one of the Thirteen Colonies in the American Revolution and subsequently joined the Confederacy in the American Civil War, during which the state of West Virginia separated. Although traditionally conservative and historically part of the South, modern Virginia is a politically competitive state for both major national parties.
Virginia has an economy with several sectors, including agricultural production, such as the Shenandoah Valley, federal agencies in Northern Virginia, such as The Pentagon, and military bases in Hampton Roads, home to the region's main seaport. The growth of the media and technology sectors have made computer chips the state's leading export, with the industry based on the strength of Virginia's public schools and universities. College sports are followed by many across the state. Areas where the state has lagged behind include obesity prevention and environmental protection.FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF WESSAGUSSET COLONY
Wessagusset Colony (sometimes called the Weston Colony or Weymouth Colony) was a short-lived English trading colony in New England located in present-day Weymouth, Massachusetts. It was settled in August 1622 by between fifty and sixty colonists who were ill-prepared for colonial life. After settling without adequate provisions[1] and harming relations with local Native Americans,[2] the colony was dissolved in late March 1623 with surviving colonists joining Plymouth Colony or returning to England. It was the second settlement in Massachusetts, predating the Massachusetts Bay Colony by six years.
Called by historian Charles Francis Adams, Jr. "ill-conceived, "ill-executed, [and] ill-fated",[3] the short-lived colony is best remembered for the battle (some say massacre)[4] there between Plymouth troops led by Miles Standish and an Indian force led by Pecksuot. This battle scarred relations between the Plymouth colonists and the natives and was fictionalized, two centuries later, in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1858 poem, The Courtship of Miles Standish.
In September 1623, a second colony led by Governor-General Robert Gorges was created in the abandoned site at Wessagusset. This colony, rechristened as Weymouth, was also unsuccessful and Governor Gorges returned to England the following year. Despite that, some settlers remained in the village and it was absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF West Indies Federation
The West Indies Federation, also known as the Federation of the West Indies, was a short-lived Caribbean federation that existed from January 3, 1958 to May 31, 1962. It consisted of several Caribbean colonies of the United Kingdom. The expressed intention of the Federation was to create a political unit that would become independent from Britain as a single state—possibly similar to the Canadian Confederation, Australian Federation or Central African Federation; however, before that could happen, the Federation collapsed due to internal political conflicts.
FORMER BRITISH COLONIES OF ZULULAND
In 1816, Shaka acceded to the Zulu throne. Within a year he had conquered the neighboring clans, and had made the Zulu into the most important ally of the large Mtetwa clan, which competed with the Ndwandwe clan for domination of the northern part of modern-day KwaZulu-Natal.
Shaka initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, forming a well-organized and centralized Zulu state. The most important reforms involved the transformation of the army, thanks to innovative tactics and weapons he conceived; and a showdown with the spiritual leadership, clipping the wings, claws and fangs of the witchdoctors, effectively ensuring the subservience of the "Zulu church" to the state.
Another important reform integrated defeated clans into the Zulu, on a basis of full equality, with promotions in the army and civil service becoming a matter of merit rather than due to circumstances of birth.
martes, 24 de febrero de 2009
malta
Malta
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Malta
Throughout much of its history, Malta's location in the Mediterranean Sea has had strategic importance. Malta was conquered and ruled by a sequence of powers including the Phoenicians, Romans, Fatimids, Knights of St John and English. Malta gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and is currently a member of the European Union, which it joined in 2004. It is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations.
The island is commonly associated with the Knights Hospitaller who ruled it from the 16th through the 18th Centuries. Along with the historic Biblical shipwreck of St. Paul on the island, this ingrained a strong Roman Catholic legacy responsible for Catholicism being the official and dominant religion in Malta today.
The country's official languages are Maltese and English, although there are strong historical ties to the Italian language on the islands.
Etymology
The origin of the term "Malta" is uncertain, though the modern day variation is from the Maltese language. The more common etymology is that it comes from the Greek word μέλι (meli) ('honey'). The Greeks called the island Μελίτη (Melite) meaning "honey" or "honey-sweet" possibly due to Malta's unique production of honey; an endemic species of bee lives on the island, giving it the common nickname the "land of honey". Not only was there Greek influence on the island as early as 700 BCE,[ but the island was later governed by the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire from 395 to 870.Another etymology is the Phoenician word Maleth meaning "a haven," in reference to Malta's many bays and coves.
[edit] Ancient civilizations
The Maltese islands were first settled in 5200 BC by stone age farmers who had arrived from the larger island of Sicily, possibly the Sicani. The extinction of the dwarf hippos and dwarf elephants has been linked to the earliest arrival of humans on Malta.
The Sicani were the only known tribe known to have inhabited the island at this time and are generally regarded as related to the Iberians[15]. The population on Malta grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and, in common with other ancient Mediterranean cultures, worshiped a fertility figure represented in Maltese prehistoric artifacts as exhibiting the large proportions seen in similar statuettes, including the Venus of Wille
Pottery from the Għar Dalam phase bares similarities with pottery found in Agrigento, Sicily. This earliest period of Maltese civilization was either supplanted by, or gave rise to, a mysterious culture of megalithic temple builders. The surviving monuments they constructed on Malta and Gozo the the oldest standing stone structures on Earth. The temples were used from 4000–2500 BCE and were constructed with a distinctive architecture, typically a complex trefoil design.
There is some evidence that their rituals included animal sacrifice, however accurate information from this period is tentative. The culture appears to have disappeared from the Maltese Islands around 2500 BCe. Historians and archeologists speculate that the temple builders fell victim to famine or disease. War is discounted as a likely cause and archeological digs on Malta have yielded little or no evidence of weapons.
During 3500 BC, these people built some of the oldest free-standing structures in the world in the form of the megalithic Ġgantija temples on Gozo, other early temples include those at Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra. Thereafter, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta.
Around 700 BC, the Ancient Greeks settled on Malta, especially around the area now occupied by Valletta. A century later, Phoenician traders, who used the islands as stop on their trade routes from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to Cornwall, joined the natives on the island.
After the fall of Phoenicia, in 400 BC the area came under the control of Carthage, a former Phoenician colony.During this time the people on Malta mainly cultivated olives and carobs, and produced textiles.
During the First Punic War of 218 BC, tensions lead the Maltese people to rebel against Carthage and turn control of their garrison over to the Roman Republic consul Sempronius. Malta remained loyal to Rome during the Syracusan revolt and the Romans rewarded it with the title Foederata Civitas, a designation that meant it would enjoy some autonomy although it fell within the jurisdiction of Sicilia province. The island, then known as Melita, had its capital located in the centre and this carried the same name; the city's present name is Mdina.
In 117 BC, the Maltese Islands were a thriving part of the Roman Empire, being promoted to the status of Municipium under Hadrian. During 60 AD, in the north of the island at Saint Paul's Bay, one of the apostles of Jesus Christ named Saint Paul was shipwrecked on the shores. Tradition holds he stayed in Malta for three months, introducing Christianity and performing various miracles.This is documented in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles.
When the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western divisions in the 4th century, Malta fell under the control of the Greek speaking Byzantine Empire which was ruled from Constantinople. Although Malta was under Byzantine rule for four centuries, not much is known from this period. There is evidence that Germanic tribes, including the Goths and Vandals, briefly took control of the islands before the Byzantines launched a counter attack and retook Malta.
[edit] Middle Ages
Malta was involved in the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and the conquest of Malta is closely linked with that of Sicily due to admiral Euphemius betraying his fellow Byzantines and requesting that the Aghlabid dynasty invade the area.As part of the Emirate of Sicily rule switched to the Fatimids in 909.The Arabs introduced new irrigation, some fruits and cotton and the Siculo-Arabic language was adopted on the island from Sicily and Southern Italy: it would eventually evolve into the Maltese language. The native Christians were allowed freedom of religion but had to pay an extra tax to the occupying power. The Normans from the Duchy of Normandy relieved Sicily and the Maltese Islands in 1091 and Roger I of Sicily was warmly welcomed by the native Christians. The Maltese offered to fight for him and in response Roger reportedly tore off a portion of his flag, half-red half-white, presenting it to the Maltese; this formed the basis of the flag of Malta.
The Norman period was productive; Malta became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Sicily which also covered the island of Sicily and the southern half of the Italian Peninsula. The Catholic Church was re-instated as the state religion with Malta under the See of Palermo and much Norman architecture sprung up around Malta especially in its ancient capital Mdina. Tancred of Sicily, the last Norman monarch, made Malta and Gozo a feudal lordship or fief within the kingdom and a Count of Malta instated. As the islands were much desired due to their strategic importance, it was during this time the men of Malta were militarised to fend off capture attempts; the early counts were skilled Genoese corsairs.The kingdom passed on to the House of Hohenstaufen from 1194 until 1266. It was under Frederick I that all remaining Muslims were expelled from Malta (in 1229) and the entire Christian male population of Celano in Abruzzo was exported to Malta.
For a brief period the kingdom passed to the Capetian House of Anjou, however high taxes made the dynasty unpopular in Malta, due in part to Charles of Anjou's war against the Republic of Genoa and the island of Gozo was sacked in 1275. A large revolt on Sicily known as the Sicilian Vespers followed these attacks, that saw the Peninsula separating into the Kingdom of Naples; the Kingdom of Sicily, including Malta, then fell under the rule of the Aragonese. Relatives of the kings of Aragon ruled the island until 1409, when it passed to the Crown of Aragon. Early on in the Aragonese reign the sons of the monarchy received the title, "Count of Malta". It was also during this time that much of the Maltese nobility sprang up. However by 1397 the bearing of the title "Count of Malta" reverted to a feudal basis with two families fighting over the distinction, which caused much distress. This led the king to abolish the title. Dispute over the title returned when the title was reinstated a few years later and the Maltese, led by the local nobility, rose up against Count Gonsalvo Monroy. Although they opposed the Count, the Maltese voiced their loyalty to the Sicilian Crown, which so impressed Alfonso IV that he did not punish the people for their rebellion but promised never to grant the title to a third party, instead incorporating it back into the crown. The city of Mdina was nicknamed Città Notabile as a result of this sequence of events.
Knights of Malta and Napoleon
In 1530 Charles I of Spain gave the islands to the Order of Knights of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem in perpetual lease. These knights, a military religious order now known as the Knights of Malta, had been driven out of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire in 1522. They withstood a full-blown siege by the Ottoman Turks in 1565, at the time the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. The knights, fighting alongside the Maltese, were victorious and speaking of the battle Voltaire said, "Nothing is more well known than the siege of Malta".[31]
After this they decided to increase Malta's fortifications, particularly in the inner-harbour area, where the new city of Valletta, named in honour of Grand Master Jean de la Valette, was built. They also built watchtowers along the coasts - the Wignacourt, Lascaris, and de Redin towers - named after the Grand Masters who ordered the work. The Knights' presence on the island saw the completion of many architectural and cultural projects, including the embellishment of Città Vittoriosa, the construction of new cities including Città Rohan and Città Hompesch and the introduction of new academic and social resources.
The Knights' reign ended when Napoleon captured Malta on the way to Egypt during the French Revolutionary Wars in 1798. As a ruse, Napoleon asked for safe harbour to resupply his ships and then turned his guns against his hosts once safely inside Valletta. Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim capitulated and Napoleon stayed in Malta for a few days, during which time he systematically looted the movable assets of the island and established an administration controlled by his nominees. He then sailed for Egypt, leaving a substantial garrison in Malta.
The occupying French forces were deeply unpopular with the Maltese, due particularly to their negative attitude towards religion. Their financial and religious reforms did not go down well with the citizens and the Maltese rebelled, forcing the French to take cover behind the city fortifications. Great Britain, along with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, sent ammunition and aid to the Maltese and Britain also sent her navy, which blockaded the islands.
The isolated French forces, under General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois, surrendered in 1800 and the island became a British Dominion, presented by several Maltese leaders to Sir Alexander Ball. The Maltese people created a Declaration of Rights in which they demanded to come "under the protection and sovereignty of the King of the free people, His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The Declaration also stated that "his Majesty has no right to cede these Islands to any power...if he chooses to withdraw his protection, and abandon his sovereignty, the right of electing another sovereign, or of the governing of these Islands, belongs to us, the inhabitants and aborigines alone, and without control."
British rule and World War II
In 1814, as part of the Treaty of Paris, Malta officially became a part of the British Empire and was used as a shipping way-station and fleet headquarters. Malta's position half-way between Gibraltar and the Suez Canal proved to be its main asset during these years and it was considered an important stop on the way to India. In 1919 a rally protesting new taxation was shot upon by British troops, killing four Maltese men. This lead to increased resistance and support for the pro-Italian parties that had disputed the English presence on the island. The event, known as Sette Giugno (Italian for 7th June), is commemorated every year.
In the early 1930s the British Mediterranean Fleet, which was at that time the main contributor to commerce on the island, was moved to Alexandria as an economic measure. Malta played an important role during World War II, owing to its proximity to Axis shipping lanes. The bravery of the Maltese people in their long struggle against enemy attack moved HM King George VI to award the George Cross to Malta on a collective basis on April 15, 1942 "to bear witness to a heroism and devotion that will long be famous in history". Some historians argue that the award caused Britain to incur disproportionate losses in defending Malta, as British credibility would have suffered if Malta was surrendered, as Singapore had been. A replica of the George Cross now appears in the upper hoist corner of the Flag of Malta. The collective award remained unique until April 1999, when the Royal Ulster Constabulary became the second – and, to date, the only other – recipient of the collective George Cross.
Independence
Following the war, after the Labour Party's unsuccessful attempt at integration with Britain, Malta was granted independence on September 21, 1964 (Independence Day). Under its 1964 constitution, Malta initially retained Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta, with a Governor-General exercising executive authority on her behalf. On December 13, 1974 (Republic Day) Malta became a republic within the British Commonwealth, with the President as head of state. A defence agreement signed soon after independence (and re-negotiated in 1972) expired on March 31, 1979 (Freedom Day) when the British military forces were withdrawn and the Union Flag was lowered for the last time by Admiral Sir John Hamilton GBE, Commander in Chief of the Eastern Mediterranean fleet. Malta adopted an official policy of neutrality in 1980 and was a member of the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries until 2004. In 1989 Malta was the venue of an important summit between US President George H.W. Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, their first face-to-face encounter, which signaled the end of the Cold War.
Malta joined the European Union on May 1, 2004. Following the European Council of 21 June to 22 June 2007 it joined the Eurozone on January 1, 2008.
Politics and government
Malta is a republic, whose parliamentary system and public administration is closely modeled on the Westminster system. Malta had the second highest voter turnout in the world (and the highest for nations without mandatory voting), based on election turnout in national lower house elections from 1960 to 1995.[37] The unicameral House of Representatives, (Maltese: Il-Kamra tad- Deputati), is elected by direct universal suffrage through single transferable vote every five years, unless the House is dissolved earlier by the President on advice of the Prime Minister. The House of Representatives is made up of sixty-five Members of Parliament. However, where a party wins an absolute majority of votes, but does not have a majority of seats, that party is given additional seats to ensure a parliamentary majority. The Constitution of Malta provides that the President appoint as Prime Minister the member of the House who is best able to command a (governing) majority in the House.
The President of the Republic is elected every five years by the House of Representatives. The role of the president as head of state is largely ceremonial. The main political parties are the Nationalist Party, which is a Christian democratic party, and the Labour Party, with Dr. Joseph Muscat as its leader, which is a social democratic party. The Nationalist Party is currently (2008) at the helm of the government, the Prime Minister being Dr. Lawrence Gonzi. The Labour Party is in opposition. There are a number of smaller political parties in Malta that presently have no parliamentary representation.
Until World War II Maltese politics was dominated by the language question fought out by pro-Italian and pro-British parties. Post-War politics dealt with constitutional questions on the relations with Britain (first with Integration then Independence) and, eventually, relations with the European Union.
Administrative divisions
Malta is divided into 68 elected local councils, with each council responsible for the administration of cities or regions of varying sizes. Administrative responsibility is distributed between the local councils and the central government in Valletta. The Local Councils Act, 1993 (Act XV of 1993) was published on June 30, 1993, subdividing Malta into 54 local councils in Malta and 14 in Gozo. The inhabitants who are registered elect the Council every three years, as voters in the Local Councils' Electoral Register. Elections are held by means of the system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote. The mayor is the head of the Local Council and the representative of the Council for all effects under the Act. The Executive Secretary, who is appointed by the Council, is the executive, administrative, and financial head of the Council. All decisions are taken collectively with the other members of the Council. Local councils are responsible for the general upkeep and embellishment of the locality, allocation of local wardens and refuse collection; they also carry out general administrative duties for the central government such as collection of government rents and funds and answer government-related public inquiries.
Local councils
Since 1993 Malta has been subdivided into sixty-eight local councils. These form the most basic form of local government. There are no intermediate levels between local government and national government and the levels of the 6 districts (5 on the main island) and of the 3 regions (2 on the main island) serve primarily statistical purposes.
Geography
Malta is an archipelago in the central Mediterranean Sea (in its eastern basin), some 93 km south of the Italian island of Sicily across the Malta Channel. Only the three largest islands Malta Island (Malta), Gozo (Għawdex), and Comino (Kemmuna) are inhabited. The smaller islands, such as Filfla, Cominotto and the Islands of St. Paul are uninhabited. Numerous bays along the indented coastline of the islands provide good harbours. The islands of the archipelago were formed from the high points of a land bridge between Sicily and North Africa which became isolated as sea levels rose after the last ice age. The archipelago lies on the edge of the African tectonic plate, as it borders with the Eurasian plate.
The modern-day landscape is characterised by low hills with terraced fields. The highest point is at Ta' Dmejrek on Malta Island at 253 metres (830 ft) near Dingli. Although there are some small rivers at times of high rainfall, there are no permanent rivers or lakes on Malta. However, some watercourses are found around the island that have fresh water running all year round. Such places are Baħrija, l-Intaħleb and San Martin. Running water in Gozo is found at Lunzjata Valley.
Malta implemented the Schengen Agreement on December 21, 2007. Customs and border controls remained at airports until March 2008.
Contrary to popular belief, the south of Malta is not Europe's most southern point; that distinction belongs to the Greek island of Gavdos.
Phytogeographically, Malta belongs to the Liguro-Tyrrhenian province of the Mediterranean Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Malta belongs to the ecoregion of "Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub".
Islands
The main islands, and the only inhabited ones of the country are Malta Island, Comino and Gozo. Other islands that form part of the archipelago include: Cominotto (Kemmunett, uninhabited), Filfla (uninhabited), Fungus Rock (Il-Ġebla tal-Ġeneral, uninhabited), Manoel Island (which is joined to the town of Gżira, on the mainland by a bridge), and the Islands of St. Paul (uninhabited). The Maltese Islands have been an independent republic since 1974. The centre of government, commerce and a primary centre of culture is the capital city of Valletta on the eastern coast of Malta.
Maltese Islands are as the following:
Climate
The climate is Mediterranean (Köppen climate classification Csa), with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. There is no real thermal dormant season for plants, although plant growth can be checked briefly by abnormal cold in winter (patches of ground frost may occur in inland locales), and summer heat and aridity may cause vegetation to wilt. Effectively there are only two seasons, which makes the islands attractive for tourists, especially during the drier months. However, strong winds can make Malta feel cold during the springtime.
Water supply poses a problem on Malta, as the summer is both rainless and the time of greatest water use, and the winter rainfall often falls as heavy showers running off to the sea rather than soaking into the ground. Malta depends on underground reserves of fresh water, drawn through a system of water tunnels called the Ta' Kandja galleries, which average about 97 m. below surface and extend like the spokes of a wheel. In the galleries in Malta's porous limestone, fresh water lies in a lens upon brine. More than half the potable water of Malta is produced by desalination, which creates further issues of fossil fuel use and pollution.
The lowest temperature ever recorded at Valletta was on February 19, 1895, with 1.2 °C (34.2 °F), and the highest temperature was 43.8 °C (110.8 °F) recorded in August 1999 at Luqa International Airport. An unofficial lowest temperature of −1.7 °C (28.9 °F) was recorded on February 1, 1962 in the Ta' Qali airfield with snow on the ground.
Snow is virtually unheard of, with very few and brief snow flurries recorded in February 1895, January 1905 and January 31st, 1962. No accumulation has been reported on the coast at least since 1800, but on the last day of January 1962 snow briefly covered some parts of the interior of the main island. The following night the only frost in the history of Malta was recorded in the Ta' Qali airfield.
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